Litigation and Dispute Resolution

Limitation periods in equity

3 September, 2018

Many not-for-profit organisations (NFPs) exist for the purpose of exposing and challenging acts, practices or behaviour perceived to be unethical or unjust. In advocating for change, some NFP’s may publish critiques and commentaries on politicians or corporations which can damage their reputation.  Therefore, it is always important for NFPs to consider the risks associated with what they may be communicating to the wider world, lest they be opening themselves to defamation proceedings.

Defamation Generally

Defamation broadly refers to lies or rumours that are spread about someone who would rather them not be spread.  In law, the following elements must be established:

  1. one must communicate information about another person to someone other than that person;
  2. the ordinary reasonable recipient of that information must be able to identify the person who is being communicated about; and
  3. that communication must contain defamatory content in the mind of an ordinary reasonable person.

The first element is easy to conceptualise – it can be anything from some water cooler style gossip in the office to the headline of SMH describing Mr Hockey as a “Treasurer for Sale”, as seen in Hockey v Fairfax Media Publications Pty Ltd.

The second element is a little trickier.  Although this element obviously includes named people, such as Mr Hockey in the above article, it can also apply where the identity of that person can be inferred.  In Pedavoli v Fairfax Media Publications Pty Ltd, it was claimed in another SMH article that a female teacher from St Aloysius College in her late 20s who taught English and drama engaged in sexual relations with school students.  There was only one such teacher that fit that description, allowing members of that school community to identify Ms Pedavoli (it should be noted that Ms Pedavoli was wrongly identified, and that the teacher who engaged in the alleged conduct did not fit the description in the article).  Justice McCallum found this to be sufficient identifying information and therefore defamatory.

The third element presents more of a challenge.   This is measured by applying the objective test of the ordinary, reasonable person and questioning whether the communication would cause them to think less of the potential plaintiff, either explicitly or through inference.  If so, then the communication has defamatory meaning.

There are various types of comments that could make an ordinary, reasonable person think less of the subject in question. For example, comments that impute that the subject is biased or corrupt (like the suggestion about Mr Hockey), that the subject is inappropriate for their chosen career (like the suggestion regarding Ms Pedavoli), that the subject is incompetent, unable to carry out their professional duties with due care or a person of low moral standing.  The list is endless, and must be assessed on a case by case basis.

Bringing Proceedings

Even if one is able to prove the above elements, it does not necessarily mean that they will be able to bring proceedings.  Under the Defamation Act 2005 (NSW), which is substantively the same as the defamation laws in other Australian states, corporations cannot bring proceedings unless they either are an NFP or have less than 10 employees.

Whilst this may prevent some defamation proceedings being initiated, it is important to remember that directors, managers and employees of a corporation can still bring proceedings if the defamatory material could be construed against them as individuals.

It is also worth noting that although the vast majority of corporations may be prevented from bringing an action in defamation, this does not stop them from commencing proceedings in another tort known as “injurious falsehood”.  Whilst this tort is more difficult to prove than defamation, as there must be actual damage and an intention to cause that damage, corporations are not barred from using it as the basis for bringing legal proceedings.

Defences

There are a range of defences which exist that can protect those that publish what would otherwise be defamatory material.  Some of these are outlined below:

Truth/Justification:

if the otherwise defamatory statement is objectively true, a claim in defamation can be defeated.

Fair comment/honest opinion:

an otherwise defamatory statement can be defended if:

  • the statement is recognisable as a comment (i.e. it is a statement of opinion, like a criticism or an observation, rather than a statement of fact);
  • the comment is based on objectively true facts or “proper material”;
  • the comment is on a matter of public interest; and
  • a fair minded person could honestly express the same comment based on similar facts or proper material.

Qualified privilege                        

an otherwise defamatory communication can be defended if one can establish that:

  • the person receiving the communication has an interest in knowing that information;
  • the defamatory content is communicated in the course of providing that information; and
  • the conduct of the person communicating the material is reasonable in the circumstances.

Take away points

As agents for change, NFPs can inadvertently find their communications and publications entering potentially defamatory territory.  However, there are three key guidelines which can be followed to minimise the risk of a defamatory finding.

  1. Confine criticisms to the conduct of others, rather than their character. Calling someone incompetent is likely to be defamatory (unless one can prove that such a statement is true), whilst explaining the flaws in a research methodology allows you to criticise an outcome, rather than a person.  It is more difficult to prove that the latter is defamatory.
  2. Double check your sources. Defences tend to rely on objective facts, rather than what the person stating the facts understood them to be.  Make sure you trust where your information is coming from before you use it as the basis of a critique.
  3. Restrict yourself to opinions, and reduce inflammatory language. This will increase the prospect of successfully relying on the fair comment defence whilst simultaneously enhancing your credibility.

McCabes Expertise

We have expertise in prosecuting and defending defamation proceedings in different courts, including in appellate courts.  We have also given legal and strategic advice to clients, including NFPs, in respect of potentially defamatory publications.

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Canadian Court elevates thumbs-up emoji to signature status

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After the phone call, Mr Mickleborough applied his ink signature to the contract, took a photo of it on his mobile phone and texted it to Mr Archter with the text message, "please confirm flax contract". Mr Archter responded by texting back a "thumbs-up" emoji, but ultimately did not deliver the 87 metric tonnes of flax as agreed.   Issues The parties did not dispute the facts, but rather, "disagreed as to whether there was a formal meeting of the minds" and intention to enter into a legally binding agreement. The primary issue that the Court was tasked with deciding was whether Mr Achter's use of the thumbs-up emoji carried the same weight as a signature to signify acceptance of the terms of the alleged contract. Mr Mickleborough put forward the argument that the emoji sent by Mr Achter conveyed acceptance of the terms of the agreement, however Mr Achter disagreed arguing that his use of the emoji was his way of confirming receipt of the text message. By way of affidavit, Mr Achter stated "I deny that he accepted the thumbs-up emoji as a digital signature of the incomplete contract"; and "I did not have time to review the Flax agreement and merely wanted to indicate that I did receive his text message." Consensus Ad Idem In deciding this issue, the Court needed to determine whether there had been a "formal meeting of the minds". At paragraph [18], Justice Keene considered the reasonable bystander test: " The court is to look at “how each party’s conduct would appear to a reasonable person in the position of the other party” (Aga at para 35). The test for agreement to a contract for legal purposes is whether the parties have indicated to the outside world, in the form of the objective reasonable bystander, their intention to contract and the terms of such contract (Aga at para 36). The question is not what the parties subjectively had in mind, but rather whether their conduct was such that a reasonable person would conclude that they had intended to be bound (Aga at para 37)."   Justice Keene considered several factors including: The nature of the business relationship, notably that Mr Achter had a long-standing business relationship with SWT going back to at least 2015 when Mr Mickleborough started with SWT; and   The consistency in the manner by which the parties conducted their business by way of verbal conversation either in person or over the phone to come to an agreement on price and volume of grain, which would be followed by Mr Mickleborough drafting a contract and sending it to Mr Achter. Mr Mickleborough stated, "I have done approximately fifteen to twenty contracts with Achter"; and   The fact that the parties had both clearly understood responses by Mr Achter such as "looks good", "ok" or "yup" to mean confirmation of the contract and "not a mere acknowledgment of the receipt of the contract" by Mr Achter.   Judgment At paragraph [36], Keene J said: "I am satisfied on the balance of probabilities that Chris okayed or approved the contract just like he had done before except this time he used a thumbs-up emoji. In my opinion, when considering all of the circumstances that meant approval of the flax contract and not simply that he had received the contract and was going to think about it. In my view a reasonable bystander knowing all of the background would come to the objective understanding that the parties had reached consensus ad item – a meeting of the minds – just like they had done on numerous other occasions." The court satisfied that the use of the thumbs-up emoji paralleled the prior abbreviated texts that the parties had used to confirm agreement ("looks good", "yup" and "ok"). This approach had become the established way the parties conducted their business relationship.   Significance of the Thumbs-Up Emoji Justice Keene acknowledged the significance of a thumbs-up emoji as something analogous to a signature at paragraph [63]: "This court readily acknowledges that a thumbs-up emoji is a non-traditional means to "sign" a document but nevertheless under these circumstances this was a valid way to convey the two purposes of a "signature" – to identify the signator… and… to convey Achter's acceptance of the flax contract." In support of this, Justice Keene cited the dictionary.com definition of the thumbs-up emoji: "used to express assent, approval or encouragement in digital communications, especially in western cultures", confirming that the thumbs-up emoji is an "action in an electronic form" that can be used to allow express acceptance as contemplated under the Canadian Electronic Information and Documents Act 2000. Justice Keene dismissed the concerns raised by the defence that accepting the thumbs up emoji as a sign of agreement would "open the flood gates" to new interpretations of other emojis, such as the 'fist bump' and 'handshake'. Significantly, the Court held, "I agree this case is novel (at least in Skatchewan), but nevertheless this Court cannot (nor should it) attempt to stem the tide of technology and common usage." Ultimately the Court found in favour of SWT, holding that there was a valid contract between the parties and that the defendant breached by failing to deliver the flax. Keene J made a judgment against ALC for damages in the amount of $82,200.21 payable to SWT plus interest.   What does this mean for Australia? This is a Canadian decision meaning that it is not precedent in Australia. However, an Australian court is well within its rights to consider this judgment when dealing with matters that come before it with similar circumstances. This judgment is a reminder that the common law of contract has and will continue to evolve to meet the everchanging realities and challenges of our day-to-day lives. As time has progressed, we have seen the courts transition from sole acceptance of the traditional "wet ink" signature, to electronic signatures. Electronic signatures are legally recognised in Australia and are provided for by the Electronic Transactions Act 1999 and the Electronic Transactions Regulations 2020. Companies are also now able to execute certain documents via electronic means under s 127 of the Corporations Act. We have also seen the rise of electronic platforms such as "DocuSign" used in commercial relationships to facilitate the efficient signing of contracts. Furthermore, this case highlights how courts will interpret the element of "intention" when determining whether a valid contract has been formed, confirming the long-standing principle that it is to be assessed objectively from the perspective of a reasonable and objective bystander who is aware of all the relevant facts. Overall, this is an interesting development for parties engaging in commerce via electronic means and an important reminder to all to be conscious of the fact that contracts have the potential to be agreed to by use of an emoji in today's digital age.

Published by Foez Dewan
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Government

Venues NSW ats Kerri Kane: Venues NSW successful in overturning a District Court decision

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